Abstract
Objective
To develop a method for objective assessment of equine post–operative pain.
Study design
Prospective nonblinded clinical study.
Animals
Twelve adult horses: Group 1 (G1, n = 6), admitted for arthroscopy (under general anaesthesia, with multimodal analgesia);
Group 2 (G2, n = 6), ‘pain free’ controls.
Materials and methods
Horses were filmed continuously (CVI, time–lapse video recorder) over 72 hours, from
24 hours pre–surgery (PS) to 48 hours post–recovery (PR) (G1), and over 24 hours (G2).
Activity budgets were determined from 24 to 0 hours PS, 0–24 and 24–48 hours PR (G1)
and for 24 hours (G2). Using direct observation (DO), active behaviours and postures
were recorded at set time points PS and PR (G1) and at two time points (morning/evening)
(G2). Heart rate (HR) and respiration rate (RR) were recorded simultaneously. Statistical
analysis investigated within–group and between–group time–related changes in behaviour,
HR and RR.
Results
There was no difference in HR or RR between G1 and G2 at any time point. Anaesthetic
‘hangover’ and hunger–related activity modulated behaviour from 0 to 6 hours PR, when
abnormal postures and locomotion occurred in all G1 horses, but no G2 horses. Compared
with G1 (0–24 hours PR), G2 spent more time eating (t = −3.34, p < 0.01), more time at the front of the stable (t = −2.42, p < 0.05), and less time exhibiting ‘abnormal’ behaviour (U = 56, p < 0.01). Comparing PS and PR behaviour, G1 spent less time exploring from 24 to 48
hours PR (t = 3.49, p < 0.05), less time in sternal recumbency (t = −3.8, p < 0.05) and less time moving (t = 3.19, p < 0.05). Horses tended (p < 0.07) to spend less time positioned in the front of the stable PR (less from 24
to 48 hours PR than from 0 to 24 hours PR). Comparing PR (evening) behaviour, G2 spent
more time with head above withers (U = 21.5, p < 0.01), and ears forwards (U = 22, p < 0.01). G1 showed time–related changes (all p < 0.05) in time with lower lip tense (S = 15.8), eating (S = 17.08) and with head positioned above withers (S = 18.04). No differences in event behaviours were observed between G1 and G2. Within
G1, only olfactory behaviour varied significantly with time (S = 14.52, p < 0.05).
Conclusions
Changes in equine behaviour suggestive of post–operative discomfort were identified
using both DO and CVI. Analysis of activity budgets may be a more sensitive method
of identifying behavioural changes indicative of equine discomfort than repeated DO
of specific events and postures.
Keywords
To read this article in full you will need to make a payment
Purchase one-time access:
Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online accessOne-time access price info
- For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
- For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'
Subscribe:
Subscribe to Veterinary Anaesthesia and AnalgesiaAlready a print subscriber? Claim online access
Already an online subscriber? Sign in
Register: Create an account
Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect
Reference
- The formalin test: scoring properties of the first and second phases of the pain response in rats.Pain. 1995; 60: 91-102
- New perspectives on the definition of pain.Pain. 1996; 67: 3-6
- Subjective and objective measurements of post-operative pain in cats.J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000; 217: 685-690
- Correlation between subjective and objective measures used to determine severity of post-operative pain in dogs.J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1997; 210: 1619-1620
- A comparison of the sedative effects of three α2-adreonceptor agonists (romifidine, detomidine and xylazine) in the horse.J Vet Pharmacol Therapeut. 1992; 15: 194-201
- Development of a scale to evaluate post-operative pain in dogs.J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1999; 214: 651-658
- Comparison of sedative effects of romifidine following intravenous, intramuscular and sublingual administration to horses.Am J Vet Res. 1999; 60: 954-959
- Sedative and analgesic effects of detomidine and romidine in horses.Vet Record. 1995; 132: 324-326
- Physiological measurements after ovariohysterectomy in dogs: what's normal?.Appl Anim Behav Sci. 1997; 51: 101-109
- Behaviour after ovariohysterectomy in dogs: what's normal?.Appl Anim Behav Sci. 1997; 51: 111-128
- Comparison of three methods used for assessment of pain in dogs.J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998; 212: 60-66
- Relationship between physiological factors and clinical pain in dogs scored using a numerical rating scale.J Small Anim Prac. 1998; 39: 469-474
- Field trial evaluation of detomidine as a sedative and analgesic agent in horses with colic.Equine Vet J. 1989; 7: 117-120
- Comparison of detomidine, butorphanol, flunixin meglumine and xylazine in clinical cases of equine colic.Equine Vet J. 1991; 7: 111-116
- Postoperative analgesia using phenylbutazone, flunixin or carprofen in horses.Vet Record. 1993; 133: 336-338
- Pharmacokinetics of ketamine in the horse.Am J Vet Res. 1979; 40: 978-981
- Effects of butorphanol, flunixin, levorphanol, morphine and xylazine in ponies.Am J Vet Res. 1984; 45: 217-223
- Comparison of methods for the reduction of acute pain produced by rubber ring castration or tail docking of week-old lambs.Vet J. 1998; 155: 39-51
- Changes in plasma concentrations of cortisol in lambs of three ages after three methods of castration.Res Vet Sci. 1993; 55: 245-251
- Assessing pain in dogs.J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998; 212: 795
- Comparison of transdermal fentanyl and intramuscular oxymorphone on post-operative behaviour after ovariohysterectomy in dogs.Res Vet Sci. 1998; 65: 245-251
- Carprofen as an analgesic for post-operative pain in cats; dose titration and assessment of efficacy in comparison to pethidine hydrochloride.J Small Anim Prac. 1995; 36: 45-54
- The effect of surgical procedures, halothane anaesthesia and nalbuphine on locomotor activity and food and water consumption in rats.Lab Anim. 1991; 25: 50-60
- Diagnostic and surgical arthroscopy of the carpal joints.in: Diagnostic and Surgical Arthroscpy in the Horse. Lea & Febiger, PA, USA1990: 85-113
- Diagnostic and surgical arthroscpy of the femoropatellar and femorotibial joints.in: Diagnostic and Surgical Arthroscpy in the Horse. Lea & Febiger, PA, USA1990: 113-160
- Behavioural responses of lambs of three ages in the first 3 hours after three methods of castration and tail docking.Res Vet Sci. 1993; 55: 236-245
- Assessment of acute and chronic pain in farm animals using behavioural and physiological measurements.J Anim Sci. 1997; 75: 266-272
- Reduction in pain suffered by lambs at castration.Vet J. 1997; 153: 205-213
- Validation of a method for assessment of an acute pain in lambs.Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2002; 76: 215-238
- Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of diazepam in Horses.Am J Vet Res. 1982; 43: 1756-1762
- Behavioural observations of piglets undergoing tail docking, teeth clipping and ear notching.Appl Anim Behav Sci. 1994; 39: 203-213
- Attitudes towards pain in horses – a pilot epidemiological survey.Vet Record. 2002; 151: 570-575
- Analgesia of newborn lambs before castration and tail-docking with rubber rings.Vet Record. 2001; 149: 321-324
- Preliminary investigations of pain and analgesia assessment in horses given phenylbutazone or placebo after arthroscopic surgery.Vet Surg. 1997; 26: 155
- A comparison of methods for evaluation of pain and distress after orthopaedic surgery in horses.J Vet Anaesthesia. 1997; 24: 17-20
- A comparison of the post-operative analgesic and sedative effects of flunixin and papaveretum in the dog.J Small Anim Prac. 1991; 32: 603-608
- Medical treatment of degenerative joint disease.in: Colahan PT Merritt AM Moore JN Mayhew IG 5th edn. Equine Medicine and Surgery. Vol. 2. Mosby, St Louis, USA1998: 1416-1417
- Effects of different methods of castration on behaviour and plasma cortisol in calves of three ages.Res Vet Sci. 1994; 56: 8-17
- A new analgesic drug combination in the horse.Am J Vet Res. 1983; 44: 1667-1669
- Metabolic and hormonal changes associated with arthroscopic surgery in the horse.Equine Vet J. 1990; 22: 316
- Effects of surgery and analgesic administration on spontaneous behaviour in singly housed rats.Res Vet Sci. 2000; 69: 283-288
- Behavioural effects of laparotomy and analgesic effects of ketoprofen and carprofen in rats.Pain. 2001; 90: 65-74
- Diagnosing and treating pain in the horse. Where are we today?.Vet Clinics North Am (Equine Pract). 2002; 18: 1-19
- The social behaviour of horses.in: Keeling LJ Gonyou H Social Behaviour in Farm Animals. CAB International, Wallingford, UK2001: 245-272
- Horse Behaviour: the Behavioural Traits and Adaptions of Domestic and Wild Horses, Including Ponies. Noyes Publications, NJ, USA1983
- Pharmacokinetics of intravenously administered ketamine in the horse.Res Vet Sci. 1987; 42: 162-166
- The effect of a foraging device (a modified ‘Edinburgh football’) on the behaviour of the stabled horse.Appl Anim Behav Sci. 1996; 48: 23-35
- Behavioural investigations of pain in animals.in: Duncan IJH Molony V Assessing Pain in Farm Animals. Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg1986: 16-29
Uncited Reference
- Horse handling and transport.in: Grandin T Livestock Handling and Transport. CAB International, Wallingford1993: 233-252
- A review of equine pain models.in: Short CE Van Poznak A Animal Pain. Churchill Livingstone, New York, USA1992: 403-407
- Preliminary evaluation of the potential efficacy of cranial electrotherapy stimulation in the horse.in: Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Veterinary Behavioural Medicine, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 2001: 100-105 (7-8 August)
Article Info
Publication History
Accepted:
August 15,
2002
Received:
February 10,
2002
Identification
Copyright
© 2003 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
